SPEAK ITALIAN FLUENTLY

HOW TO SPEAK (REAL) ITALIAN

Italian grammar is easy to learn! This Grammar Section is designed to help you grasp the essential rules as quickly and clearly as possible, so you can begin forming your own sentences from day one. Unlike other courses that overwhelm you with theory, our approach focuses on the most important rules that will allow you to speak Italian confidently and naturally—starting today.

In the lessons ahead, you’ll find everything you need to master Italian grammar, from basic sentence structure and verb conjugations to more advanced topics like noun gender, article usage, and prepositions. Each topic is explained with practical, easy-to-understand examples to help you not only learn the rules but also remember and apply them. We recommend learning the core 2000 Italian vocabulary words first—this will make the examples much easier to follow and internalize.

The grammar topics covered include the Italian alphabet, gender and number agreement, definite and indefinite articles, personal and possessive pronouns, and prepositions. You’ll also dive into adverbs, adjectives, present, past, and future tenses, as well as the imperative and conditional mood, negation, sentence structure, questions, and relative clauses. Click on any section title to jump directly to the topic you're interested in, or start from the beginning and let your knowledge grow naturally.

Italian Pronunciation

Italian is often praised for its musicality, clarity, and regularity. Unlike English, where pronunciation can be unpredictable, Italian is largely phonetic—what you see is what you say. Each letter has a consistent sound, and the language flows with a rhythm that makes it both beautiful and approachable. Still, to sound natural and be understood clearly, it’s important to master the key principles of Italian pronunciation.

Italian Vowels: The Foundation of Sound

Italian has five vowel letters—a, e, i, o, u—but seven distinct vowel sounds. These are pure vowels, meaning each one is pronounced with a single, steady sound, unlike diphthongs in English.

• A is always pronounced as in father: amore (love), casa (house)

• E can be open or closed:
  – Open as in bed: bello (beautiful), tempo (time)
  – Closed, similar to the vowel in they but shorter: perché (why), sera (evening)

• I is pronounced like the ee in see: vino (wine), libro (book)

• O can also be open or closed:
  – Open as in off: notte (night), corto (short)
  – Closed as in more (but shorter): loro (they), molto (very)

• U is like the oo in boot: luna (moon), tutto (everything)

Vowel length is not phonemic in Italian. This means that whether you say a vowel short or long doesn’t change the meaning—but in practice, stressed vowels are slightly longer.

Consonants: Clear and Crisp

Italian consonants are generally pronounced sharply and clearly. Here are the most important points:

Double Consonants (Geminate Consonants)
Doubling a consonant changes the meaning of a word, and it must be heard clearly. The doubled sound is held or stressed slightly longer.

Examples:
pala (shovel) vs. palla (ball)
pena (penalty) vs. penna (pen)

C and G Before I and E
The letters c and g are “soft” before e and i, pronounced like the English ch and j respectively.

Examples:
cena (dinner), cinque (five)
gelato (ice cream), gioco (game)

But when c and g appear before a, o, or u, they’re hard:
cane (dog), colore (color), cultura (culture)
gatto (cat), gonna (skirt), gusto (taste)

To make c and g hard before e or i, insert an h:
che (what), chi (who)
ghetto (ghetto), ghiaccio (ice)

Sc, Gn, and Gli – Unique Sounds
Some Italian sounds have no direct English equivalent:

• Sc before e or i is pronounced like sh in shoe:
  scena (scene), uscire (to go out)

• Gn is like the ny in canyon:
  gnocchi (dumplings), lasagna (lasagna)

• Gli is similar to lli in million, but pronounced with the tongue against the roof of the mouth:
  famiglia (family), figlio (son)

These sounds require practice and careful listening. Mimic native speakers and repeat words slowly, focusing on mouth and tongue placement.

S and Z: Voiced or Voiceless?

The letters s and z can be tricky, as they may sound voiced (with vibration) or voiceless (without vibration), depending on context.

S

• Voiceless, like in sun, at the beginning of a word or between vowels:
  solo (alone), storia (story)

• Voiced, like in rose, between two vowels:
  casa (house), mese (month)

Z

• Can be voiced (like ds in kids) or voiceless (like ts in cats), often unpredictably:
  zero (zero) – voiceless
  zaino (backpack) – voiced

It’s best to memorize the pronunciation of each z word individually, as there are no consistent rules.

The Italian R: A Rolled Consonant

One of the most iconic sounds of Italian is the rolled r (alveolar trill). This occurs when the tongue vibrates against the ridge behind the upper teeth. It may be challenging at first, but it adds authenticity to your accent.

Examples:
Roma (Rome), carro (cart), treno (train)

If you can't roll your rs at first, start with a light d-like sound and increase airflow and tongue flexibility through daily practice.

Stress and Intonation: The Music of Italian

In Italian, stress usually falls on the second-to-last syllable, but there are many exceptions. Knowing where to place the stress is crucial, as incorrect stress can lead to misunderstandings or make your speech sound foreign.

Examples:
telefono (telephone) – stress on the le
città (city) – stress on the final syllable (à marks stress)
albero (tree) – stress on the al
ancora (anchor) vs. ancóra (again) – different meanings, same spelling

Italian intonation tends to rise at the end of yes-no questions and fall in statements:

Hai fame? (Are you hungry?) – rising intonation
Ho fame. (I am hungry.) – falling intonation

Elision and Linking: Natural Connections Between Words

Italian often links words together in a smooth, flowing way. One common feature is elision, the omission of a final vowel before a word beginning with a vowel.

Examples:
l’amico (the friend), un’altra (another one)

This keeps the language musical and avoids awkward pauses.

There is also liaison, where consonants and vowels glide into each other across word boundaries:
andare a casa (to go home) sounds like andàre-a-casa

Regional Accents: From North to South

Standard Italian is based on the Tuscan dialect, especially Florentine, but you’ll encounter many regional accents throughout Italy. These may affect pronunciation of vowels, r, s, and intonation. Some southern accents, for instance, use more open vowels.

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Gender of Nouns in Italian

In Italian, every noun has a gender: it is either masculine or feminine. This is a fundamental part of the language and affects not only the noun itself but also articles, adjectives, and pronouns that agree with it.

Grammatical gender in Italian doesn’t always correspond to biological gender. While some nouns refer to people or animals and follow natural gender, many others refer to objects, places, or abstract concepts and must simply be memorized.

In general, Italian follows some predictable patterns for noun endings:

• Nouns ending in -o are usually masculine

• Nouns ending in -a are usually feminine

• Nouns ending in -e can be masculine or feminine

• Nouns ending in a consonant or a foreign word are usually masculine

Examples:

il libro – the book (masculine)
la casa – the house (feminine)
il cane – the dog (masculine)
la chiave – the key (feminine)

These patterns are not absolute, but they are helpful for beginners.

Definite and Indefinite Articles Reflect Gender

Articles in Italian must agree in gender with the noun:

il ragazzo – the boy
la ragazza – the girl
un amico – a (male) friend
un’amica – a (female) friend

Note that la becomes l’ before a vowel, as in:

l’amica – the (female) friend
l’uomo – the man (masculine, even though it ends in -o)

Gender of Nouns Referring to People

When referring to people, Italian nouns typically match the natural gender of the person.

Masculine:

il padre – the father
il dottore – the doctor (male)
il fratello – the brother

Feminine:

la madre – the mother
la dottoressa – the doctor (female)
la sorella – the sister

Some professions now have both masculine and feminine forms, while others use the same form for both genders with article changes:

il/la cantante – the singer (male/female)
il/la presidente – the president (male/female)

Nouns with the Same Form for Both Genders

Some nouns do not change form but are still either masculine or feminine depending on the context or article.

il turista – the male tourist
la turista – the female tourist

il collega – the male colleague
la collega – the female colleague

These nouns often end in -a and may look feminine but can be masculine.

Nouns with Irregular Gender

There are a few common nouns whose gender is not predictable from their endings and must be memorized:

il problema – the problem (masculine)
il sistema – the system (masculine)
la mano – the hand (feminine)
la foto – the photo (feminine, short for fotografia)
il cinema – the cinema (masculine, short for cinematografo)

These irregular forms are often borrowed from Greek or are abbreviations of longer words.

Gender of Animals

Some animal names change gender to reflect male or female:

il gatto – the male cat
la gatta – the female cat
il cane – the male dog
la cagna – the female dog

For other animals, especially wild or large animals, Italian often uses a single word with a clarifying term:

il leone – the lion
la leonessa – the lioness

il cavallo femmina – the female horse
l’elefante maschio – the male elephant

Plural Forms and Gender

The gender of the noun also determines how the plural form is created:

• Masculine nouns ending in -o usually become -i

• Feminine nouns ending in -a usually become -e

• Nouns ending in -e, whether masculine or feminine, usually become -i

Examples:

il ragazzo → i ragazzi – the boys
la ragazza → le ragazze – the girls
il cane → i cani – the dogs
la chiave → le chiavi – the keys

Gender in Compound Nouns and Foreign Words

Compound nouns and foreign borrowings are usually masculine in gender, even if their components suggest otherwise.

il caffè – the coffee (masculine)
il computer – the computer (masculine)
il weekend – the weekend (masculine)

Some exceptions exist, and a few borrowed nouns may be used in feminine form depending on context or speaker preference.

Agreement with Adjectives and Pronouns

Nouns in Italian must agree in gender with any adjectives or pronouns that refer to them.

Examples:

La casa è bella.
(The house is beautiful. – feminine)

Il giardino è bello.
(The garden is beautiful. – masculine)

La mia macchina.
(My car. – feminine possessive)

Il mio libro.
(My book. – masculine possessive)

This agreement is essential for sentence correctness and clarity.

Plurals in Italian: A Guide to Mastering the Art of the Many

In Italian, forming the plural of nouns, adjectives, and articles is a fundamental part of grammar. Unlike English, which often just adds -s or -es, Italian uses vowel changes at the end of the word to indicate plural forms. Understanding these patterns will help you correctly describe people, objects, and situations involving more than one thing.

This guide explains how plural forms work for different types of nouns, with clear examples and important exceptions.

The Basic Rule: Changing the Final Vowel

In most cases, Italian forms plurals by changing the final vowel of the singular noun.

Masculine Nouns

Nouns ending in -o usually become -i in the plural.

il libro → i libri
(the book → the books)

il ragazzo → i ragazzi
(the boy → the boys)

il tavolo → i tavoli
(the table → the tables)

Feminine Nouns

Nouns ending in -a usually become -e in the plural.

la casa → le case
(the house → the houses)

la porta → le porte
(the door → the doors)

la ragazza → le ragazze
(the girl → the girls)

Nouns Ending in -e

Nouns of both genders that end in -e form the plural by changing -e to -i.

il cane → i cani
(the dog → the dogs)

la chiave → le chiavi
(the key → the keys)

il mese → i mesi
(the month → the months)

Plurals and Definite Articles

Plural nouns must be used with the correct plural definite article, which also changes depending on gender and the initial letter of the word.

il libro → i libri
la casa → le case
l’amico → gli amici
lo studente → gli studenti

Similarly, indefinite articles disappear in the plural but are often replaced by qualche (some) or dei / delle / degli depending on the gender and starting sound.

Plurals of Adjectives

Adjectives in Italian must agree in gender and number with the noun they modify. This means adjectives also change endings in the plural.

un ragazzo alto → due ragazzi alti
(a tall boy → two tall boys)

una casa nuova → due case nuove
(a new house → two new houses)

un cane intelligente → due cani intelligenti
(an intelligent dog → two intelligent dogs)

Irregular Plural Forms

Italian has several nouns with irregular plurals that must be memorized individually.

Nouns Ending in -ca / -ga and -co / -go

These nouns add an h in the plural to preserve the hard sound.

la barca → le barche
(the boat → the boats)

l’amica → le amiche
(the (female) friend → the (female) friends)

il parco → i parchi
(the park → the parks)

il fuoco → i fuochi
(the fire → the fires)

There are exceptions, especially with words of Greek origin:

il medico → i medici
(the doctor → the doctors)

il porco → i porci
(the pig → the pigs)

Nouns That Don’t Change in the Plural

Some Italian nouns have the same form in singular and plural. These include:

Nouns Ending in -à or -ù (accented vowels)

la città → le città
(the city → the cities)

la gioventù → le gioventù
(the youth → the groups of young people)

Shortened Words

Shortened forms of longer nouns often stay unchanged.

la foto (from fotografia) → le foto
(the photo → the photos)

la moto (from motocicletta) → le moto
(the motorcycle → the motorcycles)

il cinema (from cinematografo) → i cinema
(the cinema → the cinemas)

Foreign Words

Foreign words used in Italian usually remain unchanged in the plural and are typically masculine.

il computer → i computer
(the computer → the computers)

il weekend → i weekend
(the weekend → the weekends)

il bar → i bar
(the bar → the bars)

Plurals and Gender Switch

A small number of nouns switch gender in the plural form.

l’uovo (neuter, treated as masculine) → le uova (feminine)
(the egg → the eggs)

This is an exception that must be memorized.

Plurals of Compound Nouns

Compound nouns can form plurals in different ways, depending on which part of the compound carries the meaning:

• If the first word is a noun, usually that part changes:

il capostazione → i capistazione
(the stationmaster → the stationmasters)

• If it's an invariable form or from a foreign language, the plural stays the same:

il guardaroba → i guardaroba
(the wardrobe → the wardrobes)

Plural in Context

Plural usage in Italian goes beyond noun endings—everything around the noun must agree, including:

• articles: il → i, la → le

• adjectives: rosso → rossi, nuova → nuove

• possessives: il mio libro → i miei libri, la mia casa → le mie case

Correct agreement gives your Italian clarity and fluency.

Plural in Italian

Prepositions are small but powerful words that express relationships between other words in a sentence. In Italian, prepositions are used to indicate direction, location, time, cause, manner, and possession. Understanding how they work is essential to forming accurate, natural-sounding sentences.

Unlike English, Italian prepositions often combine with definite articles, creating new forms known as preposizioni articolate. In addition, many verbs, adjectives, and expressions require fixed prepositions, which means you cannot always translate them word-for-word from English.

Simple Italian Prepositions

Italian has a set of simple prepositions that are used before nouns or pronouns. Here are the most commonly used ones, with examples.

a – to, at, in

Used for direction toward a place, time expressions, and indirect objects.
Vado a Roma. (I’m going to Rome.)
Sono a casa. (I am at home.)
Studio a mezzanotte. (I study at midnight.)
Scrivo una lettera a Marco. (I write a letter to Marco.)

in – in, into, at

Used for countries, regions, transportation, and locations.
Vivo in Italia. (I live in Italy.)
Andiamo in biblioteca. (We are going to the library.)
Viaggio in treno. (I travel by train.)

di – of, from (origin), about

Used to show possession, origin, material, and topic.
La macchina di Paolo. (Paolo’s car.)
Sono di Milano. (I am from Milan.)
Un libro di storia. (A history book.)

da – from, by, since, to (a person’s place)

Indicates motion from a place, the agent of an action, or someone’s home/work.
Vengo da Napoli. (I come from Naples.)
Il libro è stato scritto da Dante. (The book was written by Dante.)
Vado dal dottore. (I’m going to the doctor.)

con – with

Indicates accompaniment or use of something.
Esco con gli amici. (I go out with friends.)
Taglio il pane con il coltello. (I cut the bread with the knife.)

su – on, about

Used for physical position or topic.
Il libro è sul tavolo. (The book is on the table.)
Un film su Leonardo da Vinci. (A movie about Leonardo da Vinci.)

per – for, in order to, through

Used to show purpose, destination, and cause.
Questo regalo è per te. (This gift is for you.)
Partiamo per Firenze. (We’re leaving for Florence.)

tra / fra – between, among, in (time)

Used interchangeably.
Il gatto è tra le sedie. (The cat is between the chairs.)
Fra due ore arrivo. (I’ll arrive in two hours.)

Articulated Prepositions (Preposizioni Articolate)

When a simple preposition is followed by a definite article, they often combine into one word. These contractions are very common and essential in fluent speech.

Examples:

• di + il = del → il libro del professore (the professor’s book)

• a + la = alla → alla scuola (to the school)

• in + i = nei → nei libri (in the books)

• su + gli = sugli → sugli scaffali (on the shelves)

• da + le = dalle → dalle ragazze (from the girls)

These forms must match the gender and number of the noun they refer to. Using the correct preposizione articolata helps you speak more fluidly and grammatically.

Prepositions and Place Names

Prepositions used with cities, countries, and regions follow specific patterns:

• Use a with cities and small islands:
  Vado a Milano. (I’m going to Milan.)
  Abito a Capri. (I live in Capri.)

• Use in with countries, regions, and large islands:
  Vado in Francia. (I’m going to France.)
  Vivo in Sicilia. (I live in Sicily.)

• Use da when talking about going to or coming from a person’s place:
  Vado da Maria. (I’m going to Maria’s place.)
  Torno dal dentista. (I’m coming back from the dentist.)

Prepositions and Time

Italian uses prepositions in many time expressions:

• a for clock time:
  La lezione è alle otto. (The lesson is at eight.)

• in for months, seasons, and years:
  In gennaio fa freddo. (In January, it’s cold.)
  In estate andiamo al mare. (In summer, we go to the beach.)
  È nato nel 2001. (He was born in 2001.)

• da for duration from the past to now:
  Studio italiano da due anni. (I’ve been studying Italian for two years.)

• per for intended duration:
  Resto in Italia per un mese. (I’m staying in Italy for a month.)

• tra / fra for future time:
  Parto fra tre giorni. (I leave in three days.)

Prepositions Required by Verbs

Some verbs require specific prepositions before their objects. This is a key area where English and Italian diverge.

Examples:

• pensare a → Penso a te. (I’m thinking about you.)

• credere in → Credo in Dio. (I believe in God.)

• parlare di → Parliamo di politica. (We talk about politics.)

• fidarsi di → Mi fido di lui. (I trust him.)

• andare a → Andiamo a mangiare. (Let’s go eat.)

These fixed combinations must be learned with each verb, just as with phrasal verbs in English.

Idiomatic Uses of Prepositions

Italian prepositions often appear in idiomatic expressions, which don’t always match English structures.

Examples:

• in fretta (in a hurry)

• a piedi (on foot)

• di solito (usually)

• su due piedi (on the spot)

• da solo (alone)

• per caso (by chance)

• tra l’altro (among other things)

These expressions are fixed, and changing the preposition usually makes the phrase ungrammatical or nonsensical.

Prepositions in Italian

Pronouns are words that replace nouns to avoid repetition and make sentences smoother and more elegant. In Italian, as in English, pronouns vary based on number, gender, person, and grammatical function. Mastering them is essential for clear, natural communication.

Italian pronouns are more complex than their English counterparts because they must agree in gender and number with the nouns they replace. They also change form depending on whether they are used as subjects, direct or indirect objects, after prepositions, or in reflexive constructions.

This guide walks you through all the major types of Italian pronouns and how to use them.

Subject Pronouns (Pronomi Soggetto)

Subject pronouns indicate who is performing the action of the verb. In Italian, they are often omitted because the verb ending usually makes the subject clear. However, they are used for emphasis or contrast.

Singular:

io (I)
tu (you, informal)
lui (he), lei (she), Lei (you, formal)

Plural:

noi (we)
voi (you all)
loro (they)

Examples:
Io parlo italiano. (I speak Italian.)
Tu sei stanco. (You are tired.)
Lei è gentile. (You are kind. – formal)
Noi andiamo al cinema. (We are going to the cinema.)

Note that subject pronouns are often dropped:
Parlo italiano. (I speak Italian.) – io is understood.

Direct Object Pronouns (Pronomi Diretti)

Direct object pronouns replace the noun that directly receives the action of the verb.

Singular:

mi (me)
ti (you)
lo (him/it, masculine)
la (her/it, feminine)

Plural:

ci (us)
vi (you all)
li (them, masculine)
le (them, feminine)

Examples:
Lo vedo. (I see him/it.)
La mangio. (I eat it. – feminine noun)
Ci ascoltano. (They listen to us.)
Ti chiamo domani. (I’ll call you tomorrow.)

These pronouns usually come before the verb:
Lo conosco bene. (I know him well.)

In compound tenses (like the passato prossimo), the past participle agrees with the direct object:
Hai visto le ragazze? (Did you see the girls?)
Sì, le ho viste. (Yes, I saw them.)

Indirect Object Pronouns (Pronomi Indiretti)

Indirect object pronouns indicate to or for whom the action is done. They are used with verbs that require a (to) or per (for).

Singular:

mi (to me)
ti (to you)
gli (to him), le (to her), Le (to you, formal)

Plural:

ci (to us)
vi (to you all)
gli (to them)

Examples:
Mi scrive spesso. (He writes to me often.)
Le do il libro. (I give her the book.)
Gli offriamo un caffè. (We offer them a coffee.)

Like direct object pronouns, these usually come before the verb:
Ti telefono domani. (I’ll call you tomorrow.)

Reflexive Pronouns (Pronomi Riflessivi)

Used when the subject and the object are the same. Common with verbs like lavarsi (to wash oneself), alzarsi (to get up), vestirsi (to get dressed).

Singular:

mi (myself)
ti (yourself)
si (himself/herself/yourself, formal)

Plural:

ci (ourselves)
vi (yourselves)
si (themselves)

Examples:
Mi alzo presto. (I get up early.)
Ti lavi le mani? (Are you washing your hands?)
Si chiama Marco. (His name is Marco.)
Ci svegliamo alle sette. (We wake up at seven.)

Reflexive verbs always include the matching pronoun, even if it seems redundant.

Disjunctive Pronouns (Pronomi Tonici)

Used after prepositions or for emphasis. These do not contract or combine with verbs.

me (me)
te (you)
lui (him), lei (her), Lei (you, formal)
noi (us)
voi (you all)
loro (them)

Examples:
Con me (with me), per te (for you), senza di lui (without him)
Vengo con voi. (I’m coming with you all.)
È per loro. (It’s for them.)

Disjunctive pronouns are also used for emphasis:
Parla con me, non con lui! (Talk to me, not to him!)

Possessive Pronouns (Pronomi Possessivi)

Possessive pronouns replace nouns and indicate ownership. They must agree in gender and number with the noun they refer to.

il mio (mine – masculine singular)
la tua (yours – feminine singular)
i suoi (his/hers – masculine plural)
le nostre (ours – feminine plural)

Examples:
La mia macchina è rossa. La tua è blu. (My car is red. Yours is blue.)
Questo libro è il suo. (This book is his/hers.)
Le chiavi sono le mie. (The keys are mine.)

The definite article is usually included with possessive pronouns.

Relative Pronouns (Pronomi Relativi)

Used to connect clauses and avoid repetition of nouns. The most common are:

che (who, which, that) – refers to subject or object
cui (whom, which) – used with prepositions
il quale / la quale / i quali / le quali – formal alternatives to che and cui

Examples:
Il ragazzo che parla è mio fratello. (The boy who is speaking is my brother.)
La città in cui vivo è bellissima. (The city I live in is beautiful.)
Il libro di cui parli è interessante. (The book you’re talking about is interesting.)

Relative pronouns are key in forming complex, fluid sentences.

Interrogative Pronouns (Pronomi Interrogativi)

Used to ask questions.

chi (who)
che / che cosa / cosa (what)
quale (which)
quanto / quanta / quanti / quante (how much / how many)

Examples:
Chi è lui? (Who is he?)
Cosa vuoi? (What do you want?)
Quale preferisci? (Which one do you prefer?)
Quanti anni hai? (How old are you?)

Indefinite Pronouns (Pronomi Indefiniti)

Refer to nonspecific people or things.

qualcuno (someone)
qualcosa (something)
ognuno (everyone)
nessuno (no one)
tutti (everyone, plural)
alcuni (some, a few)

Examples:
Qualcuno ha chiamato. (Someone called.)
Non c’è nessuno. (There is no one.)
Tutti sono arrivati. (Everyone has arrived.)

Pronouns in Italian

Conjunctions are the connective tissue of language. They allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses to form more complex and fluid sentences. In Italian, as in English, conjunctions play a central role in both spoken and written communication.

Italian conjunctions fall into several categories depending on the kind of connection they make: coordination, subordination, cause, contrast, time, condition, and more. Some are simple one-word connectors, while others are multi-word expressions.

Coordinating Conjunctions

These connect words or phrases of equal grammatical value, such as two nouns, two verbs, or two independent clauses.

e – and

Luca e Marco sono amici.
(Luca and Marco are friends.)

Mangio pane e formaggio.
(I eat bread and cheese.)

o / oppure – or / or else

Vuoi tè o caffè?
(Do you want tea or coffee?)

Possiamo andare al cinema oppure restare a casa.
(We can go to the cinema or else stay home.)

ma – but

Voglio uscire, ma piove.
(I want to go out, but it's raining.)

Mi piace il gelato, ma non il cioccolato.
(I like ice cream, but not chocolate.)

però / tuttavia – however / nevertheless

È bravo, però a volte è distratto.
(He is good, however he is sometimes distracted.)

Aveva promesso, tuttavia non è venuto.
(He had promised, nevertheless he didn't come.)

Subordinating Conjunctions

These introduce dependent clauses and show relationships like cause, purpose, time, or condition.

che – that

Penso che sia una buona idea.
(I think that it's a good idea.)

So che sei stanco.
(I know that you're tired.)

perché – because / why

Non esco perché piove.
(I’m not going out because it’s raining.)

Perché sei triste?
(Why are you sad?)

quando – when

Chiamami quando arrivi.
(Call me when you arrive.)

Era felice quando l'ha visto.
(He was happy when he saw him.)

se – if

Se piove, resto a casa.
(If it rains, I’ll stay home.)

Ti aiuto se vuoi.
(I’ll help you if you want.)

mentre – while / whereas

Studio mentre ascolto musica.
(I study while listening to music.)

Lui è calmo, mentre lei è agitata.
(He is calm, whereas she is nervous.)

Conjunctions of Purpose

These introduce a reason or goal behind an action.

affinché / perché / in modo che – so that / in order that

Ti scrivo affinché tu capisca meglio.
(I’m writing to you so that you understand better.)

Parla piano perché tutti possano sentire.
(He speaks slowly so everyone can hear.)

Lavoro molto in modo che possiamo partire.
(I work a lot so that we can leave.)

Conjunctions of Cause

These express why something happens.

poiché / siccome – since / because

Poiché piove, non andiamo.
(Since it’s raining, we’re not going.)

Siccome sei stanco, andiamo a dormire.
(Since you’re tired, let’s go to sleep.)

Conjunctions of Time

These relate to when something happens in relation to another event.

prima che – before

Uscite prima che cominci il film.
(Leave before the movie starts.)

dopo che – after

Andiamo a cena dopo che finisce la lezione.
(We’ll go to dinner after the lesson ends.)

non appena / appena – as soon as

Ti chiamo non appena arrivo.
(I’ll call you as soon as I arrive.)

Conjunctions of Contrast or Opposition

These are used to contrast two ideas.

anche se – even though / although

Vado anche se piove.
(I’m going even though it’s raining.)

sebbene / benché – although / even though

Sebbene sia difficile, ce la farò.
(Although it’s difficult, I’ll manage.)

Benché lo sappia, non lo dice.
(Although he knows it, he doesn’t say it.)

Conjunctions of Condition

These introduce clauses that describe conditions.

a condizione che / purché – provided that / as long as

Ti aiuto a condizione che tu studi.
(I’ll help you provided that you study.)

Puoi uscire purché tu rientri presto.
(You can go out as long as you come back early.)

Conjunctions of Comparison

These express similarity or difference.

come – as / like

Lui corre come un atleta.
(He runs like an athlete.)

più... di / meno... di – more... than / less... than

È più intelligente di quanto pensassi.
(He is more intelligent than I thought.)

Compound and Formal Conjunctions

Italian has many compound conjunctions used in formal or literary contexts. These often come with the subjunctive mood.

a patto che – on the condition that

nel caso che – in the case that
malgrado – despite the fact that
come se – as if

Ti accetto a patto che tu dica la verità.
(I accept you on the condition that you tell the truth.)

Parla come se fosse un esperto.
(He talks as if he were an expert.)

Conjunctions in Italian

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire sentences. They provide essential details about how, when, where, how often, and to what degree something happens. In Italian, adverbs are highly versatile and often placed close to the word they modify. Unlike adjectives, adverbs do not change according to gender or number—they are invariable.

Forming Adverbs from Adjectives

Many Italian adverbs are formed by adding -mente to the feminine singular form of an adjective, much like adding -ly in English.

For example:

lento → lentamente (slow → slowly)
felice → felicemente (happy → happily)
attento → attentamente (careful → carefully)
generoso → generosamente (generous → generously)

If the adjective ends in -e, just add -mente directly:

facile → facilmente (easy → easily)
veloce → velocemente (fast → quickly)

When two or more adverbs ending in -mente appear together, only the last one keeps the ending:

parla chiaro e lentamente (he speaks clearly and slowly)
cammina sicura e agilmente (she walks confidently and gracefully)

This formation method gives you the ability to build a wide range of adverbs using vocabulary you may already know from adjectives.

Types of Italian Adverbs

Adverbs in Italian are categorized by the type of information they convey. Each type plays a distinct role in the sentence.

Adverbs of Manner (Modalità)

These adverbs explain how something is done. Many of them end in -mente.

lentamente (slowly)
bene (well)
male (badly)
velocemente (quickly)
piano (gently, slowly)
fortemente (strongly)
esattamente (exactly)

Example sentences:

Guidava lentamente. (He was driving slowly.)
Ha risposto bene. (She answered well.)
Parli troppo velocemente. (You speak too fast.)

Adverbs of Place (Luogo)

These adverbs indicate where an action takes place.

qui (here)
lì / là (there)
sopra (above)
sotto (below)
vicino (near)
lontano (far)
ovunque (everywhere)
dentro (inside)
fuori (outside)

Example sentences:

Aspettami qui. (Wait for me here.)
Vive lì da anni. (He has lived there for years.)
Il gatto è sotto il tavolo. (The cat is under the table.)

Adverbs of Time (Tempo)

These adverbs explain when something happens or happened.

oggi (today)
ieri (yesterday)
domani (tomorrow)
presto (soon, early)
tardi (late)
adesso / ora (now)
sempre (always)
spesso (often)
mai (never)
già (already)
ancora (still, yet)
poi (then, later)

Example sentences:

Vado domani. (I’m going tomorrow.)
È arrivato tardi. (He arrived late.)
Non ho mai visto quel film. (I’ve never seen that movie.)

Adverbs of Frequency (Frequenza)

These adverbs tell you how often something happens.

sempre (always)
di solito (usually)
spesso (often)
qualche volta (sometimes)
raramente (rarely)
mai (never)

Example sentences:

Mangiamo sempre insieme. (We always eat together.)
Vado al mare raramente. (I rarely go to the sea.)
Qualche volta mi chiama. (He calls me sometimes.)

Adverbs of Quantity (Quantità)

These adverbs express how much or to what extent.

molto (very, a lot)
poco (little)
abbastanza (enough)
troppo (too much)
quasi (almost)
appena (barely, just)
solo (only)

Example sentences:

Sono molto felice. (I’m very happy.)
Hai mangiato troppo. (You ate too much.)
Abbiamo quasi finito. (We’re almost done.)

Note that molto, poco, and similar words also function as adjectives when used before nouns, and they agree in gender and number. As adverbs, they remain invariable.

Interrogative Adverbs

Used to ask questions, just like in English.

come (how)
quando (when)
dove (where)
perché (why)
quanto (how much)

Example sentences:

Dove vai? (Where are you going?)
Quando arriva il treno? (When does the train arrive?)
Perché sei triste? (Why are you sad?)

Negative Adverbs

Used to express negation, often paired with the word non.

mai (never)
più (anymore)
niente (nothing)
nessuno (no one)
affatto (not at all)

Example sentences:

Non ho mai visto quel film. (I’ve never seen that film.)
Non voglio più parlare. (I don’t want to speak anymore.)
Non capisco affatto. (I don’t understand at all.)

Placement of Adverbs

Adverbs usually appear after the verb or before the adjective/adverb they modify.

Parla chiaramente. (He speaks clearly.)
È molto intelligente. (She is very smart.)
Scrive lentamente ma bene. (He writes slowly but well.)

Some adverbs, especially of time and frequency, may appear at the beginning or end of the sentence for emphasis:

Domani partiamo. (We’re leaving tomorrow.)
Spesso mangiamo fuori. (We often eat out.)

In compound tenses like passato prossimo, most adverbs come between the auxiliary and the past participle:

Ho già mangiato. (I’ve already eaten.)
Hai mai visto Roma? (Have you ever seen Rome?)

However, longer adverbial phrases often follow the past participle:

Ho studiato tutto il giorno. (I studied all day.)

Adverbial Phrases

Italian also uses adverbial expressions—groups of words that function as adverbs.

di solito (usually)
ogni tanto (now and then)
in fretta (in a hurry)
a volte (sometimes)
di nuovo (again)
alla fine (in the end)
per caso (by chance)

Example sentences:

Di solito, vado a letto presto. (I usually go to bed early.)
Alla fine, ha detto la verità. (In the end, he told the truth.)
L’ho incontrato per caso. (I met him by chance.)

Adverbs in Italian

Adjectives are words that describe or qualify nouns, adding color, detail, and precision to your sentences. In Italian, adjectives must agree in gender and number with the noun they describe. This means that the form of the adjective changes depending on whether the noun is masculine or feminine, singular or plural.

Understanding how adjectives work is essential for building accurate and expressive sentences. Whether you're describing people, places, emotions, or objects, adjectives help you bring your Italian to life.

Gender and Number Agreement

In Italian, every noun has a gender—masculine or feminine—and adjectives must match both the gender and number of the noun.

For adjectives ending in -o (masculine singular form):

• -o becomes -a for feminine singular

• -i for masculine plural

• -e for feminine plural

Examples:
un ragazzo alto (a tall boy)
una ragazza alta (a tall girl)
ragazzi alti (tall boys)
ragazze alte (tall girls)

For adjectives ending in -e (used for both genders in singular):

• Singular stays -e for both masculine and feminine

• Plural becomes -i for both genders

Examples:
un ragazzo intelligente (an intelligent boy)
una ragazza intelligente (an intelligent girl)
ragazzi intelligenti (intelligent boys)
ragazze intelligenti (intelligent girls)

This system of agreement is one of the most important grammar rules in Italian and must be observed for your sentence to be correct.

Position of Adjectives

Unlike English, where adjectives usually come before the noun, in Italian they typically come after the noun.

Examples:
una macchina rossa (a red car)
un uomo interessante (an interesting man)
una giornata lunga (a long day)

However, some adjectives may appear before the noun—often for stylistic, emotional, or idiomatic reasons.

Adjectives that often come before the noun include:
bello (beautiful), brutto (ugly), buono (good), cattivo (bad), grande (big), piccolo (small), vecchio (old), giovane (young)

Examples:
una bella casa (a beautiful house)
un grande uomo (a great man)

When adjectives change position, the meaning may shift subtly. For example:

un povero uomo (a poor man, to be pitied)
un uomo povero (a man without money)

Descriptive vs. Limiting Adjectives

Adjectives in Italian can be either descriptive, adding qualities, or limiting, indicating quantity or restriction.

Descriptive adjectives:
interessante (interesting), divertente (funny), noioso (boring)
una lezione interessante (an interesting lesson)
una serata noiosa (a boring evening)

Limiting adjectives:
questo (this), quello (that), alcuni (some), ogni (each)
questo libro (this book), ogni giorno (each day)

These often precede the noun, especially demonstratives like questo and quello.

Common Italian Adjectives

Here are some commonly used adjectives that describe people and things:

felice (happy)
triste (sad)
caldo (hot)
freddo (cold)
facile (easy)
difficile (difficult)
veloce (fast)
lento (slow)
alto (tall)
basso (short)
caro (expensive or dear, depending on position)
nuovo (new)
vecchio (old)

Examples:
una giornata calda (a hot day)
un esercizio difficile (a difficult exercise)
una nuova macchina (a new car)

Note: nuovo before the noun can imply a different one, while macchina nuova refers to a recently manufactured car.

Adjective-Noun Word Order and Meaning

Some adjectives change meaning depending on whether they come before or after the noun.

Examples:

un vecchio amico (a long-time friend)
un amico vecchio (an old friend, by age)

una certa idea (a certain idea)
un’idea certa (a sure idea)

un grande artista (a great artist)
un artista grande (a physically big artist)

These distinctions add nuance and style to Italian and are especially common in literature or formal writing.

Comparative and Superlative Forms

To compare two things, Italian uses:

più (more) and meno (less), followed by di or che

Marco è più alto di Luca. (Marco is taller than Luca.)
Questo film è meno interessante di quello. (This movie is less interesting than that one.)

Superlatives express the highest or lowest degree:

il più... (the most...)
il meno... (the least...)

È il più bello. (He is the most handsome.)
È la meno costosa. (It is the least expensive.)

There is also the absolute superlative, formed by adding -issimo to the adjective stem:

buono → buonissimo (very good)
felice → felicissimo (very happy)
lento → lentissimo (very slow)

Adjective Agreement with “Essere” and “Avere”

Adjectives are often used with the verbs essere (to be) and avere (to have) to describe people, states, or possessions.

Sono felice. (I am happy.)
Lui è alto. (He is tall.)
Abbiamo una casa grande. (We have a big house.)
Lei ha gli occhi verdi. (She has green eyes.)

These constructions are common and essential to everyday conversation.

Invariable Adjectives

Some adjectives do not change form—they are invariable.

This includes most adjectives of foreign origin and some color names when formed from nouns:

blu (blue)
rosa (pink)
beige (beige)
viola (purple)

Examples:
una macchina blu (a blue car)
occhi rosa (pink eyes)

These adjectives remain the same regardless of gender or number.

Adjectives in Italian

The present tense in Italian, known as the presente indicativo, is used to describe actions happening right now, actions that happen habitually, or general truths. It is one of the most frequently used tenses and the first verb form every learner should master.

Unlike English, where auxiliary verbs like do or does are needed for questions and negatives, Italian uses simple verb endings that change according to the subject pronoun and verb conjugation group.

When to Use the Present Tense in Italian

The Italian present tense is used in a variety of contexts:

To express actions happening now:

Parlo con mia madre. (I am talking to my mother.)
Studi matematica? (Are you studying math?)

To describe habitual actions:

Lavoriamo ogni giorno. (We work every day.)
Mangiano tardi la sera. (They eat late in the evening.)

To express general truths or facts:

L’acqua bolle a cento gradi. (Water boils at one hundred degrees.)
Il sole sorge a est. (The sun rises in the east.)

To talk about the near future (especially with time expressions):

Domani vado al mare. (Tomorrow I’m going to the beach.)
Stasera usciamo. (We’re going out tonight.)

Regular Verb Conjugations

Italian verbs are grouped into three conjugations based on their infinitive endings:

• -are (first conjugation): parlare (to speak)

• -ere (second conjugation): vedere (to see)

• -ire (third conjugation): dormire (to sleep)

Each group follows a predictable pattern of endings depending on the subject.

Examples:

Parlare (to speak):
Parlo (I speak), parli (you speak), parla (he/she speaks), parliamo (we speak), parlate (you all speak), parlano (they speak)

Vedere (to see):
Vedo (I see), vedi (you see), vede (he/she sees), vediamo (we see), vedete (you all see), vedono (they see)

Dormire (to sleep):
Dormo (I sleep), dormi (you sleep), dorme (he/she sleeps), dormiamo (we sleep), dormite (you all sleep), dormono (they sleep)

Verbs with "-isc-" Insertion

Some -ire verbs insert -isc- in all forms except noi and voi. These are sometimes called -isc verbs.

Example: finire (to finish):
Finisco (I finish), finisci (you finish), finisce (he/she finishes), finiamo (we finish), finite (you all finish), finiscono (they finish)

Other common -isc- verbs include preferire (to prefer), capire (to understand), pulire (to clean), spedire (to send).

Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense

Many of the most commonly used Italian verbs are irregular, meaning they do not follow standard patterns. These must be memorized individually, but they occur so frequently that you'll learn them quickly through use.

Examples:

Essere (to be):
sono, sei, è, siamo, siete, sono

Avere (to have):
ho, hai, ha, abbiamo, avete, hanno

Andare (to go):
vado, vai, va, andiamo, andate, vanno

Fare (to do, to make):
faccio, fai, fa, facciamo, fate, fanno

Dire (to say, to tell):
dico, dici, dice, diciamo, dite, dicono

Venire (to come):
vengo, vieni, viene, veniamo, venite, vengono

These verbs are critical to everyday conversation and are often used in idiomatic expressions.

Negative Sentences in the Present Tense

To make a sentence negative in the present tense, place non before the verb.

Non capisco. (I don’t understand.)
Non lavorano oggi. (They’re not working today.)
Non abbiamo fame. (We’re not hungry.)

Note that non always comes before the conjugated verb, even if there is an object pronoun or adverb:

Non lo vedo. (I don’t see him/it.)
Non parli mai. (You never speak.)

Questions in the Present Tense

Forming questions in Italian is straightforward. Unlike English, you don’t need do/does—you simply raise your intonation or use a question word.

Parli inglese? (Do you speak English?)
Vieni con noi? (Are you coming with us?)

With question words:

Dove abiti? (Where do you live?)
Che cosa mangi? (What are you eating?)
Quando partite? (When are you leaving?)

Pronouns can be placed before or after the verb in informal speech:

Tu parli francese? (Do you speak French?)
Parli tu francese? (Do you speak French?) – slightly more emphatic

Using the Present Tense for the Near Future

In Italian, the present tense is often used to talk about future events, especially when a time marker is included.

Domani parto. (I leave tomorrow.)
Stasera ceniamo fuori. (We’re having dinner out tonight.)

As long as the context is clear, the present tense is natural for expressing future plans.

Common Verbs in the Present Tense

Here are some high-frequency verbs you will encounter often:

essere (to be)
avere (to have)
fare (to do/make)
andare (to go)
venire (to come)
parlare (to speak)
mangiare (to eat)
vivere (to live)
capire (to understand)
dormire (to sleep)
scrivere (to write)
studiare (to study)

Practice these in full sentences to become fluent in forming and recognizing the present tense in context.

Present Tense in Italian

Talking about the past in Italian means choosing the correct verb tense to describe completed actions, background descriptions, or past habits. Italian has several past tenses, but two are used most often in everyday speech: the passato prossimo and the imperfetto.

The Two Main Past Tenses in Italian

Italian primarily uses two past tenses in conversation:

• Passato Prossimo – used for actions that are completed and specific in time

• Imperfetto – used for ongoing, repetitive, or descriptive actions in the past

Let’s explore them one by one.

Passato Prossimo: The Present Perfect

The passato prossimo is the most common past tense in spoken Italian. It corresponds to both the simple past (I ate) and the present perfect (I have eaten) in English. It is used for actions that:

• happened once or a limited number of times

• are clearly completed

• occurred at a specific moment in time

Formation

Passato prossimo is formed with two parts:

1. The present tense of avere or essere

2. The past participle of the main verb

Examples with avere:

Ho mangiato. (I ate / I have eaten.)
Hai comprato il pane? (Did you buy the bread?)
Abbiamo studiato molto. (We studied a lot.)

Examples with essere:

Sono andato a Roma. (I went to Rome.)
Sei arrivata tardi. (You arrived late. – to a female)
Siamo usciti ieri sera. (We went out last night.)

Use essere with verbs of movement, state, reflexive verbs, and some intransitive verbs. When essere is used, the past participle must agree in gender and number with the subject:

Maria è partita. (Maria left.)
Loro sono arrivati. (They arrived. – masculine or mixed group)
Le ragazze sono tornate. (The girls returned.)

Imperfetto: The Imperfect Tense

The imperfetto is used to describe ongoing actions, habitual actions, and background information in the past. It does not refer to a specific moment but gives context or continuity.

Use the imperfetto when:

• talking about what things used to be like

• describing ongoing actions in the past

• indicating time, weather, age, feelings

• describing simultaneous actions in progress

Examples:

Quando ero bambino, vivevo in campagna. (When I was a child, I used to live in the countryside.)
Faceva freddo e pioveva. (It was cold and it was raining.)
Leggeva mentre io cucinavo. (He was reading while I was cooking.)

The imperfetto is regular for most verbs and uses the same endings across verb groups. Once learned, it is easy to apply.

Choosing Between Passato Prossimo and Imperfetto

Many learners confuse these two tenses, but the difference lies in perspective:

• Passato Prossimo answers: What happened?

• Imperfetto answers: What was happening? What was it like?

Compare:

Ieri ho visto Anna. (Yesterday I saw Anna. – complete action)
Vedevo spesso Anna quando lavoravo lì. (I used to see Anna often when I worked there. – repeated/habitual action)

Ha pianto quando ha sentito la notizia. (She cried when she heard the news. – completed)
Era triste e piangeva spesso. (She was sad and cried often. – ongoing state and repeated action)

In narratives or stories, both tenses are often used together:

Mentre camminavo, ho incontrato un vecchio amico.
(While I was walking, I met an old friend.)

Here, camminavo sets the scene (ongoing action), while ho incontrato marks the event that interrupts it (completed).

Reflexive and Modal Verbs in the Past

With reflexive verbs, use essere as the auxiliary and make the past participle agree with the subject:

Mi sono svegliato presto. (I woke up early. – masculine)
Ci siamo divertiti. (We had fun.)

With modal verbs (potere, volere, dovere), the choice of auxiliary depends on the verb that follows:

Ho voluto parlare. (I wanted to speak.)
Sono dovuto andare. (I had to go.)

In these cases, agreement and auxiliary choice follow the main verb:

Maria è dovuta uscire. (Maria had to go out.)
Abbiamo potuto vedere il film. (We were able to see the movie.)

Other Past Tenses (Less Frequently Used)

While passato prossimo and imperfetto are most common, it’s helpful to be aware of others:

Trapassato Prossimo – Past Perfect

Used to describe an action that happened before another past action.

Avevo già mangiato quando sei arrivato. (I had already eaten when you arrived.)

Formed with the imperfetto of avere/essere + past participle

Passato Remoto – Simple Past

Used in written narratives, history, and literature—rare in conversation except in southern Italy.

Visse a Firenze per molti anni. (He lived in Florence for many years.)

Trapassato Remoto – Remote Past Perfect

Used only in literary or historical texts.

Quando ebbe finito, uscì. (When he had finished, he left.)

Time Expressions Used with the Past

Certain time expressions help identify when to use passato prossimo or imperfetto.

Common with passato prossimo:

ieri (yesterday)
una volta (once)
l’anno scorso (last year)
alle otto (at eight o’clock)
stamattina (this morning)
un giorno (one day)

Common with imperfetto:

di solito (usually)
sempre (always)
spesso (often)
ogni giorno (every day)
mentre (while)
quando ero piccolo (when I was little)

Past Tense in Italian

The future tense in Italian, known as the futuro semplice, is used to talk about actions or events that will happen. Whether you’re making plans, predicting outcomes, or promising something, this tense allows you to express the future clearly and confidently.

Although Italian speakers often use the present tense with future meaning in casual conversation, knowing how to properly use the future tense is essential for formal communication, writing, and full fluency.

When to Use the Italian Future Tense

The futuro semplice is used in the following contexts:

To express future actions or events:

Domani partirò per Roma. (Tomorrow I will leave for Rome.)
Tra una settimana inizierà il corso. (The course will begin in a week.)

To make predictions:

Pioverà domani. (It will rain tomorrow.)
Credo che avrà successo. (I believe he will succeed.)

To express assumptions about the present:

Sarà a casa adesso. (He’s probably at home now.)
Avrai fame. (You must be hungry.)

This use is called the “future of probability” and has no direct equivalent in English.

Forming the Future Tense in Italian

The future tense is formed by adding specific endings to the infinitive stem of the verb. For most verbs, the final -e of the infinitive is dropped, and the endings are added to the stem.

For -are verbs, the a in the stem changes to e.

Examples:

parlare (to speak) → parlerò, parlerai, parlerà, parleremo, parlerete, parleranno

vendere (to sell) → venderò, venderai, venderà, venderemo, venderete, venderanno

dormire (to sleep) → dormirò, dormirai, dormirà, dormiremo, dormirete, dormiranno

These endings are the same for all regular verbs, regardless of conjugation group.

Spelling Changes and Irregular Stems

Some verbs undergo spelling changes to preserve pronunciation or have irregular stems in the future tense.

Spelling changes:

Verbs ending in -care and -gare add an h to preserve the hard sound:

giocare → giocherò (I will play)
pagare → pagherai (you will pay)

Verbs ending in -ciare and -giare drop the i to maintain correct pronunciation:

cominciare → comincerò (I will begin)
mangiare → mangeremo (we will eat)

Irregular stems:

Some of the most common verbs have irregular future stems but use regular endings. These forms must be memorized.

essere → sar-
avere → avr-
andare → andr-
fare → far-
dovere → dovr-
potere → potr-
sapere → sapr-
vedere → vedr-
vivere → vivr-
venire → verr-
volere → vorr-

Examples:

Sarò felice. (I will be happy.)
Avremo una casa nuova. (We will have a new house.)
Andranno al mare. (They will go to the sea.)

Negative and Interrogative Forms

To form the negative in the future tense, simply place non before the verb.

Non partirò domani. (I will not leave tomorrow.)
Non lo vedremo più. (We will not see him anymore.)

To ask a question, use rising intonation or question words:

Arriverai in tempo? (Will you arrive on time?)
Cosa farai domani? (What will you do tomorrow?)
Quando torneranno? (When will they return?)

Future of Probability

In Italian, the future tense is often used to make guesses about the present. This is called the futuro di probabilità.

It does not indicate future time but rather a probable situation happening right now.

Examples:

Che ore sono? Saranno le tre. (What time is it? It’s probably three o’clock.)
Non risponde. Starà dormendo. (He’s not answering. He’s probably sleeping.)
Perché è assente? Avrà avuto un impegno. (Why is he absent? He probably had something else to do.)

This usage adds subtlety and nuance to your Italian and is common in both speech and writing.

Using the Present Tense to Indicate Future Time

In informal Italian, especially in conversation, the present tense is often used to talk about the future—provided the time reference is clear.

Examples:

Domani vado a Milano. (Tomorrow I’m going to Milan.)
Stasera usciamo. (We’re going out tonight.)

This structure is natural and frequently used among native speakers, especially when referring to near-future plans.

However, the future tense is preferred in more formal settings, written language, or when you want to emphasize certainty or distance in time.

Time Expressions Commonly Used with the Future Tense

Certain time markers help you identify when to use the future tense:

domani (tomorrow)
dopodomani (the day after tomorrow)
tra poco (soon)
più tardi (later)
prossima settimana (next week)
fra un mese (in a month)
in futuro (in the future)
questa sera (this evening) – can also use present tense

Examples:

Tra poco comincerà la lezione. (The lesson will start soon.)
Fra due settimane partiremo per le vacanze. (In two weeks we will leave for vacation.)
Lo farò domani. (I will do it tomorrow.)

Future Tense in Italian

The imperative mood in Italian is used to give commands, instructions, requests, or advice. It’s the form you use when you want someone to do something—whether you're telling a friend to listen, inviting someone to come in, or giving directions.

The imperative is direct, concise, and highly common in both spoken and written Italian. It exists mainly in the second person (singular tu, plural voi), first person plural (noi, for suggestions), and formal second person singular (Lei).

When to Use the Imperative

Use the imperative to:

Give orders:

Chiudi la porta. (Close the door.)

Make invitations:

Vieni con noi! (Come with us!)

Offer advice:

Mangia più verdura. (Eat more vegetables.)

Give instructions:

Mescola bene. (Stir well.)

Encourage or suggest:

Andiamo al mare. (Let’s go to the beach.)

The subject pronoun is usually omitted in the imperative, as the verb form already makes it clear who is being addressed.

Regular Imperative Forms

The imperative forms are based on the present tense, but only for certain persons. The forms used are:

• tu (you – informal singular)

• voi (you – informal plural)

• noi (we – inclusive, for suggestions like let’s...)

• Lei (you – formal singular, using the subjunctive)

Examples with regular verbs:

parlare (to speak):
Parla! (Speak!)
Parliamo! (Let’s speak!)
Parlate! (Speak! – you all)
Parli, signora! (Please speak, ma’am.)

leggere (to read):
Leggi! (Read!)
Leggiamo! (Let’s read!)
Leggete! (Read! – you all)
Legga, signore! (Please read, sir.)

dormire (to sleep):
Dormi! (Sleep!)
Dormiamo! (Let’s sleep!)
Dormite! (Sleep! – you all)
Dorma, signora! (Please sleep, ma’am.)

The noi and voi forms are the same as the present tense. The tu form changes depending on the conjugation group.

Negative Imperative

The negative imperative is used to tell someone not to do something. It is formed differently depending on the subject.

For tu, use non + infinitive:

Non parlare! (Don’t speak!)
Non correre! (Don’t run!)
Non uscire! (Don’t go out!)

For voi, noi, and Lei, use non + imperative:

Non parlate! (Don’t speak!)
Non dormiamo! (Let’s not sleep!)
Non legga, signora! (Don’t read, ma’am.)

This is one of the few places where Italian uses the infinitive as a command, specifically with tu in the negative.

Irregular Verbs in the Imperative

Some of the most common verbs in Italian are irregular in the imperative, especially in the tu form. These must be memorized because they don’t follow the standard pattern.

Examples:

essere (to be):
Sii paziente! (Be patient!)
Sia gentile, signora! (Be kind, ma’am!)
Siate pronti! (Be ready!)

avere (to have):
Abbi cura di te. (Take care of yourself.)
Abbia pazienza! (Have patience!)
Abbiate fiducia! (Have faith!)

andare (to go):
Va’ via! (Go away!) – shortened form of vai

fare (to do/make):
Fa’ attenzione! (Pay attention!) – shortened from fai

dire (to say/tell):
Di’ la verità! (Tell the truth!) – shortened from dici

dare (to give):
Da’ una mano! (Give a hand!) – shortened from dai

stare (to stay):
Sta’ zitto! (Be quiet!) – shortened from stai

Note: when these shortened forms are used with object pronouns, the pronouns attach directly to the verb:

Dimmi! (Tell me!)
Dammi il libro! (Give me the book!)
Fammi vedere! (Let me see!)

Imperative with Pronouns

When using direct, indirect, or reflexive pronouns with the imperative, their placement depends on the sentence type:

In affirmative commands, the pronoun is attached to the verb:

Chiamami. (Call me.)
Dimmelo. (Tell it to me.)
Siediti. (Sit down.)
Mettilo sul tavolo. (Put it on the table.)

In negative commands, the pronoun is usually before the verb, but with tu, it can also stay attached:

Non mi chiamare. (Don’t call me.) – standard
Non chiamarmi. (Don’t call me.) – also acceptable with tu

With Lei and voi, the pronoun always comes before the verb in negative imperatives:
Non lo prenda, signora. (Don’t take it, ma’am.)
Non lo fate! (Don’t do it!)

Formal and Polite Imperatives (Lei)

To give polite commands or instructions to someone you address with Lei, use the present subjunctive form of the verb. The subject Lei is often included for clarity or courtesy.

Parli più lentamente, per favore. (Speak more slowly, please.)
Prenda questo modulo. (Take this form.)
Mi dica tutto. (Tell me everything.)
Si accomodi. (Please, have a seat.)

In the negative, simply place non before the verb:
Non entri senza permesso. (Do not enter without permission.)

First Person Plural (Noi) for Suggestions

To make a suggestion or invitation, use the imperative noi form, which is identical to the present tense:

Andiamo! (Let’s go!)
Mangiamo fuori stasera. (Let’s eat out tonight.)
Non facciamo tardi. (Let’s not be late.)

This form is inclusive and friendly, and very common in group situations.

Common Imperative Expressions

Here are some everyday expressions that use the imperative:

Vieni qui! (Come here!)
Aspetta un momento! (Wait a moment!)
Attento! (Careful!)
Smettila! (Stop it!)
Fermati! (Stop yourself!)
Guardami! (Look at me!)
Zitto! (Quiet!)
Va’ bene! (All right!)

Imperatives in Italian

The passive voice in Italian is used when the subject of the sentence is acted upon, rather than performing the action. This is similar to English: compare “The book was written by Dante” (passive) with “Dante wrote the book” (active).

In Italian, the passive voice is used in formal writing, journalism, academic texts, and polite speech. While less common in everyday conversation than the active voice, it is essential for reading comprehension and clear communication.

When to Use the Passive Voice

Use the passive voice when:

• The doer of the action is unknown, unimportant, or less relevant

• You want to emphasize the action or result, not the agent

• The tone requires objectivity or formality

Examples:

Il documento è stato firmato.
(The document was signed.)

La casa verrà costruita entro l’anno.
(The house will be built by the end of the year.)

Il libro è scritto da Umberto Eco.
(The book is written by Umberto Eco.)

In each case, the focus is on what happened to the subject, not on who did it.

How to Form the Passive Voice

To form the passive in Italian, use:

The verb essere (to be) + the past participle of the main verb

The past participle agrees in gender and number with the subject.

Example:

attivo:
Maria apre la porta. (Maria opens the door.)

passivo:
La porta è aperta da Maria. (The door is opened by Maria.)

The tense of essere changes depending on the time frame. The agent, if mentioned, is introduced by da (by).

Passive Voice in Different Tenses

Here’s how the passive is formed in various tenses:

Present:

Il caffè è servito.
(The coffee is served.)

Past (passato prossimo):

Il caffè è stato servito.
(The coffee was served.)

Imperfetto:

Il caffè era servito ogni mattina.
(The coffee was served every morning.)

Future:

Il caffè sarà servito alle otto.
(The coffee will be served at eight.)

Conditional:

Il caffè sarebbe servito con dolci.
(The coffee would be served with desserts.)

In all cases, the past participle agrees with the subject:

Le lettere sono state spedite.
(The letters were sent. – feminine plural)

Gli inviti saranno consegnati domani.
(The invitations will be delivered tomorrow. – masculine plural)

With or Without the Agent

You can choose to include or omit the agent depending on context.

Il quadro è stato dipinto da Leonardo.
(The painting was painted by Leonardo.)

Il quadro è stato dipinto.
(The painting was painted.)

When the agent is not important or obvious, it is typically omitted.

The si Passivante: An Alternative to the Passive

In Italian, the passive voice can also be formed using the impersonal construction "si + verb", especially in everyday and informal speech.

This is called the si passivante and is often preferred for its simplicity.

Examples:

Si vendono libri.
(Books are sold.)

Si parla italiano qui.
(Italian is spoken here.)

Si cercano volontari.
(Volunteers are being sought.)

Si costruirà una nuova scuola.
(A new school will be built.)

In these cases, si + verb conjugated in the third person agrees in number with the subject. This construction is widely used instead of the full passive with essere.

Passive with Modal Verbs

When using modal verbs (dovere, potere, volere) in the passive, the structure becomes:

Modal verb + essere + past participle

La porta deve essere chiusa.
(The door must be closed.)

Il lavoro può essere completato domani.
(The work can be completed tomorrow.)

La lettera voleva essere letta subito.
(The letter wanted to be read immediately.)

The modal verb stays in the same tense as needed, while essere + participio passato forms the passive structure.

Reflexive Verbs vs Passive Voice

Some verbs that appear passive are actually reflexive and should not be confused:

La porta si chiude.
(The door closes. – reflexive/impersonal)

vs.

La porta è chiusa.
(The door is closed. – passive)

Both are correct, but they express different nuances. The reflexive form often implies that the action is automatic or habitual, while the passive form emphasizes the state or result.

When Not to Use the Passive

While grammatically correct, the passive voice can sound awkward or overly formal in some spoken contexts. Native Italian speakers often prefer:

• Active voice

• Reflexive constructions

• Si passivante forms

So instead of:

I biglietti sono stati venduti da loro.
You’ll often hear:

Loro hanno venduto i biglietti.

Or:

Si sono venduti i biglietti.

Passive in Italian

Negation is the grammatical tool used to express denial, absence, prohibition, or non-existence. In Italian, as in English, it is essential for everyday communication. Whether you want to say I don’t know, I’ve never been there, or nothing is happening, you’ll need to master how to build negative sentences correctly.

Italian negation is generally simple and structured, but it includes a variety of forms depending on the nuance you want to express—not, never, nothing, nobody, no longer, and more.

Basic Negation with “Non”

The most fundamental way to make a sentence negative in Italian is to place non directly before the conjugated verb.

Examples:

Non parlo italiano.
(I don’t speak Italian.)

Non ho fame.
(I’m not hungry.)

Non capisco.
(I don’t understand.)

This construction works in all tenses:

Non andrò. (I won’t go.)
Non ho visto niente. (I didn’t see anything.)
Non sapevo che eri qui. (I didn’t know you were here.)

Non is always placed immediately before the verb or the auxiliary if one is used.

Common Negative Words Used with “Non”

Italian often combines non with other negative expressions to provide more specific meanings. Here are the most frequently used ones:

Non... mai – Never

Used to express that something has never happened.

Non ho mai visto quel film.
(I’ve never seen that film.)

Non viaggiano mai.
(They never travel.)

In compound tenses like passato prossimo, mai is placed between the auxiliary and the past participle.

Non... niente / nulla – Nothing, not anything

Niente and nulla are interchangeable and both mean nothing.

Non ho visto niente.
(I didn’t see anything.)

Non c’è nulla da fare.
(There’s nothing to do.)

Again, in compound tenses, niente or nulla comes after the past participle or direct object.

Non... nessuno – Nobody, no one

Nessuno can function as both a subject and an object, depending on placement.

Non conosco nessuno qui.
(I don’t know anyone here.)

Nessuno è arrivato.
(No one arrived.)

When used as a subject, non is still used before the verb. When used as an object, nessuno follows the verb.

Non... più – No more, no longer

Used to indicate that something has stopped happening.

Non studia più.
(He doesn’t study anymore.)

Non ci vediamo più.
(We don’t see each other anymore.)

In compound tenses, più is placed after the past participle.

Non ho più sentito quella canzone.
(I haven’t heard that song again.)

Non... ancora – Not yet

This expression indicates something hasn't happened yet but might in the future.

Non ho ancora finito.
(I haven’t finished yet.)

Non siamo ancora pronti.
(We’re not ready yet.)

Non... neanche / nemmeno / neppure – Not even

These three are synonyms and mean not even or not either.

Non ho neanche mangiato.
(I didn’t even eat.)

Non c’era nemmeno una sedia.
(There wasn’t even a chair.)

Non sono venuti neppure loro.
(Not even they came.)

These expressions are placed after the verb and often emphasize how completely something is denied.

Word Order in Negative Sentences

The position of the negative words is crucial:

• Non always comes before the verb.

• Other negative elements (like mai, niente, nessuno) usually come after the verb.

• In compound tenses, they come between the auxiliary and the past participle.

Examples:

Non ho mai fumato. (I have never smoked.)
Non ho visto nessuno. (I didn’t see anyone.)
Non ha fatto niente. (He didn’t do anything.)

When niente, nulla, or nessuno are the subject, they come at the beginning of the sentence:

Nessuno è venuto. (No one came.)
Niente è cambiato. (Nothing changed.)

In these cases, non is still used before the verb.

Double Negatives in Italian

Unlike in English, double negatives are grammatically correct in Italian. In fact, they are required for emphasis and completeness.

Non ho visto nessuno. (I didn’t see anyone.)
Non ha detto niente. (He didn’t say anything.)
Non vuole più vedere nessuno. (He no longer wants to see anyone.)

Each negative element contributes to the meaning. Using just one without non would make the sentence incorrect or incomplete.

Negation with Pronouns

When using object or reflexive pronouns, non still comes first, followed by the pronoun and then the verb:

Non lo conosco. (I don’t know him.)
Non ti capisco. (I don’t understand you.)
Non si arrabbia mai. (He never gets angry.)

In compound tenses:

Non l’ho visto. (I didn’t see him/it.)
Non ci siamo incontrati. (We didn’t meet.)

Other Negative Expressions

Some more advanced forms of negation include:

Non... affatto – Not at all
Non è affatto difficile. (It’s not difficult at all.)

Non... mica – Not at all / not really (colloquial)
Non è mica colpa mia. (It’s not my fault, you know.)

Non... manco – Not even (slang/informal)
Non ho manco sentito il telefono. (I didn’t even hear the phone.)

Negation in Italian

Word order in Italian is generally more flexible than in English, but there are still important patterns and rules that govern how sentences are formed. Understanding the typical structure of Italian sentences will help you speak more clearly and naturally, and avoid misunderstandings.

The default Italian word order is similar to English: Subject – Verb – Object (SVO). However, Italian allows for variations, especially for emphasis, rhythm, or style, thanks to its rich verb conjugation system and gender/number agreements.

This guide will walk you through the basic structure, variations, and special cases of Italian word order.

The Default Word Order: Subject – Verb – Object

The most common sentence structure in Italian is subject–verb–object, just like in English.

Luca mangia la pizza.
(Luca eats the pizza.)

Maria legge un libro.
(Maria reads a book.)

Parli inglese.
(You speak English.)

In these sentences, the subject is clearly expressed, the verb follows, and the direct object comes after the verb.

Omitting the Subject

In Italian, it’s common to omit the subject because the verb ending already indicates who is performing the action.

Mangio la pasta.
(I’m eating pasta. – io is understood)

Parli francese?
(Do you speak French? – tu is understood)

Siamo stanchi.
(We are tired. – noi is understood)

Pronouns are usually only added for emphasis, contrast, or clarity.

Io mangio la pasta, ma tu mangi il riso.
(I eat pasta, but you eat rice.)

Adjective Placement

Adjectives in Italian usually follow the noun, unlike in English.

Una macchina rossa.
(A red car.)

Un ragazzo simpatico.
(A nice boy.)

However, some adjectives can precede the noun, often for stylistic or emotional emphasis.

Una bella giornata.
(A beautiful day.)

Un grande uomo.
(A great man.)

When the adjective comes before the noun, the meaning can sometimes change:

Un vecchio amico (an old friend, longtime)
Un amico vecchio (an old friend, by age)

Position of Adverbs

Adverbs in Italian usually follow the verb or come at the end of the sentence.

Parla lentamente.
(He speaks slowly.)

Studiamo insieme.
(We study together.)

Vado spesso in biblioteca.
(I often go to the library.)

Some adverbs, such as sempre, mai, già, ancora, and più, are typically placed between the auxiliary and past participle in compound tenses:

Ho già mangiato.
(I have already eaten.)

Non ho mai viaggiato in Asia.
(I have never traveled to Asia.)

Word Order in Questions

Yes–no questions in Italian usually maintain the same word order as statements and are distinguished by intonation.

Hai fame?
(Are you hungry?)

Vieni con noi?
(Are you coming with us?)

In more formal or literary contexts, the subject may follow the verb:

Hai tu finito il lavoro?
(Have you finished the work?) – more emphatic

Question words go at the beginning, but the verb still follows immediately:

Dove vai?
(Where are you going?)

Cosa mangi?
(What are you eating?)

Quando partite?
(When are you leaving?)

Object Pronouns and Word Order

When using direct, indirect, or reflexive pronouns, the position of the pronoun depends on the verb form.

With simple tenses:

The pronoun goes before the verb:

Lo vedo.
(I see him/it.)

Ti aiuto.
(I help you.)

Si sveglia tardi.
(He wakes up late.)

With compound tenses:

The pronoun goes before the auxiliary verb:

L’ho visto.
(I saw him.)

Ci siamo incontrati.
(We met.)

With infinitives:

The pronoun can be attached to the end or before the conjugated verb:

Voglio vederlo.
(I want to see him/it.)

Lo voglio vedere.
(I want to see him/it.)

Both versions are grammatically correct.

Emphatic and Inverted Word Order

Italian allows flexibility for emphasis. Moving parts of the sentence can shift the focus.

Ha comprato un libro Maria.
(It was Maria who bought a book. – emphasis on Maria)

Un libro ha comprato.
(She bought a book. – emphasis on book)

Such inversions are more common in literary, poetic, or rhetorical contexts, but you’ll also hear them in speech when someone wants to highlight contrast or drama.

Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases typically come after the noun or verb they modify.

Abito in Italia.
(I live in Italy.)

La ragazza con i capelli rossi.
(The girl with red hair.)

Parliamo di politica.
(We talk about politics.)

In cases of emphasis or style, they can be moved:

In Italia ci sono molti monumenti.
(In Italy, there are many monuments.)

Word Order with Negation

Negation in Italian follows a clear structure: non + verb + other elements.

Non parlo spagnolo.
(I don’t speak Spanish.)

Non ho visto niente.
(I didn’t see anything.)

When using pronouns with negation, the order is:
non + pronoun + verb

Non lo so.
(I don’t know it.)

Non ci vado.
(I’m not going there.)

Word Order in Formal vs Informal Language

In formal Italian, word order tends to be more structured and may include the subject pronoun for clarity or respect.

Lei cosa desidera?
(What would you like?) – formal use of Lei

In informal speech, elements may be reordered for natural flow, especially with pronouns and short answers:

Lo sai?
(Do you know it?)

Sì, lo so.
(Yes, I know it.)

Word Order in Italian

Asking questions is one of the most important skills in any language. In Italian, forming questions is relatively straightforward compared to English because there is no need to use auxiliary verbs like do or does. Italian relies on intonation, word order, and question words to signal a question.

Whether you're asking for information, clarification, or a yes/no answer, this guide will help you master the different ways to form and use questions in Italian.

Yes/No Questions

To ask yes/no questions in Italian, you generally use the same word order as a statement, but change your intonation (raise your voice at the end of the sentence).

Examples:

Parli inglese?
(Do you speak English?)

Hai fame?
(Are you hungry?)

Siete pronti?
(Are you ready?)

Unlike English, you do not need to add do or does:

English: Do you like pizza?
Italian: Ti piace la pizza?

Questions with Question Words (Interrogative Words)

When asking open-ended questions, you start with a question word, followed by the verb and subject (if needed).

Here are the most common Italian question words:

Che / Che cosa / Cosa – What

All three are used to ask what, and are mostly interchangeable.

Che fai? (What are you doing?)
Che cosa vuoi? (What do you want?)
Cosa succede? (What’s happening?)

In more formal contexts, che cosa is often preferred.

Chi – Who

Used to refer to people.

Chi è lui? (Who is he?)
Chi ha chiamato? (Who called?)
Con chi parli? (Who are you talking to?)

When a preposition is involved, it comes before chi:

Per chi è questo regalo? (For whom is this gift?)

Dove – Where

Used to ask about place or direction.

Dove vai? (Where are you going?)
Dove abiti? (Where do you live?)
Dove si trova il museo? (Where is the museum located?)

Quando – When

Used to ask about time.

Quando arrivi? (When are you arriving?)
Quando è la festa? (When is the party?)
Quando partono i treni? (When do the trains leave?)

Perché – Why

Used to ask for reasons or motives.

Perché studi italiano? (Why are you studying Italian?)
Perché sei triste? (Why are you sad?)
Perché non vieni con noi? (Why aren’t you coming with us?)

Perché also means because when used in answers:

Perché ho fame. (Because I’m hungry.)

Come – How

Used to ask about manner or condition.

Come stai? (How are you?)
Come si dice “car” in italiano? (How do you say “car” in Italian?)
Come funziona? (How does it work?)

Quanto / Quanta / Quanti / Quante – How much / How many

These must agree in gender and number with the noun.

Quanto costa? (How much does it cost?)
Quanta acqua bevi? (How much water do you drink?)
Quanti anni hai? (How old are you?)
Quante persone ci sono? (How many people are there?)

Inversion and Emphasis

While Italian doesn’t require verb-subject inversion like English does, you can use inversion or reorder the elements of a sentence for emphasis.

Hai tu fatto i compiti?
(Was it you who did the homework?) – emphasis on tu

È venuto Marco?
(Did Marco come?) – more literary or formal

This type of inversion is rare in everyday speech but may appear in writing or formal speech.

Question Tags

Unlike English, Italian doesn’t use direct question tags like isn’t it? or don’t you? Instead, it often uses expressions like:

No? (Right?)
Eh? (Huh?)
Vero? (True?)
Giusto? (Correct?)

Examples:

Sei stanco, no?
(You’re tired, aren’t you?)

Hai fame, vero?
(You’re hungry, right?)

Asking Polite or Indirect Questions

In formal situations, questions can be made more polite by using Lei and modal verbs like potere or volere.

Mi può aiutare?
(Can you help me?)

Potrebbe dirmi l’ora?
(Could you tell me the time?)

Vorrebbe un caffè?
(Would you like a coffee?)

These polite forms are especially important when addressing strangers, superiors, or in service contexts.

Short Questions and Answers

Italian allows for short questions, often with just one word:

Chi? (Who?)
Quando? (When?)
Perché? (Why?)
Come? (What do you mean? / How?)

And short answers:

Sì. (Yes.)
No. (No.)
Forse. (Maybe.)
Non lo so. (I don’t know.)
Subito. (Right away.)

These are common in casual conversations and quick exchanges.

Questions in Italian

Relative clauses allow you to combine two sentences by linking them with a relative pronoun. This is essential for building more advanced and nuanced sentences in Italian. A relative clause gives more information about a noun in the main clause, just like in English.

Example:

La ragazza che canta è mia sorella.
(The girl who is singing is my sister.)

The clause che canta (who is singing) adds information about la ragazza (the girl). In Italian, these clauses are called proposizioni relative, and the words used to link them are pronomi relativi (relative pronouns).

Most Common Italian Relative Pronouns

Italian has a small group of relative pronouns that cover most uses. The most frequently used are:

• che (who, that, which)

• cui (whom, which)

• il quale, la quale, i quali, le quali (who, which – formal or for clarity)

• dove (where)

• chi (the one who, whoever)

Let’s explore each one.

“Che”: The Most Common Relative Pronoun

Che is the most versatile and widely used Italian relative pronoun. It can refer to people or things, and it does not change for gender or number. It can be translated as who, that, or which, depending on context.

Examples:

Il libro che leggo è interessante.
(The book that I’m reading is interesting.)

La ragazza che ha vinto è mia cugina.
(The girl who won is my cousin.)

Il film che abbiamo visto era noioso.
(The movie we watched was boring.)

Che functions as the subject or direct object of the relative clause.

“Cui”: Used After Prepositions

Cui is an invariable relative pronoun used after a preposition. It means whom, which, or whose, depending on the structure. It’s often used in more formal writing or when the verb requires a preposition.

Examples:

L’uomo a cui ho parlato è mio zio.
(The man I spoke to is my uncle.)

La città in cui vivo è bellissima.
(The city I live in is beautiful.)

Il motivo per cui sono qui è importante.
(The reason why I am here is important.)

Cui can also express possession when used with a definite article:

L’amico il cui padre è medico.
(The friend whose father is a doctor.)

Here, il cui (literally whose) agrees in gender and number with the noun that follows (padre).

“Il quale” and Its Forms: Formal and Precise

Il quale, la quale, i quali, le quali are formal relative pronouns used to avoid ambiguity, especially in complex or written sentences. They agree in gender and number with the noun they refer to, and can be used with prepositions.

Examples:

Il signore al quale ho scritto è un avvocato.
(The gentleman to whom I wrote is a lawyer.)

La casa nella quale abita è vecchia.
(The house in which he lives is old.)

Gli studenti ai quali hai parlato sono qui.
(The students you spoke to are here.)

This construction is especially useful when clarity is important—when you want to be very specific about what noun the relative clause is referring to.

“Chi”: Whoever / The One Who

Chi is a special relative pronoun used to refer to unspecified people. It is always singular and masculine, even if it refers to a group. It can mean who, the one who, or whoever.

Examples:

Chi studia impara.
(Who studies learns. / Those who study learn.)

Chi dorme non piglia pesci.
(Who sleeps doesn’t catch fish. – Italian proverb)

Chi vuole venire con me?
(Who wants to come with me?)

Chi is often used to make general statements and is followed by a verb in the third person singular.

“Dove”: Where

While technically an adverb, dove is frequently used in relative clauses to refer to places, and functions like a relative pronoun meaning where.

Examples:

La città dove sono nato è bellissima.
(The city where I was born is beautiful.)

Il ristorante dove mangiamo spesso è chiuso.
(The restaurant where we often eat is closed.)

In more formal Italian, in cui or nel quale can replace dove:

La città in cui sono nato.
(The city in which I was born.)

Word Order in Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are introduced immediately after the noun they describe. The clause follows standard Italian sentence structure: subject–verb–object. There is no need for commas unless it is a non-defining clause (which is rare in Italian compared to English).

Example:

Ho conosciuto una ragazza che parla tre lingue.
(I met a girl who speaks three languages.)

You can also use prepositions with relative pronouns at the beginning of the clause:

Questa è la strada su cui cammino ogni giorno.
(This is the road on which I walk every day.)

No Relative “That” Drop in Italian

In English, it’s sometimes possible to omit the relative pronoun (The book I read was good), but in Italian, the relative pronoun must always be present:

✅ Il libro che ho letto era bello.
❌ Il libro ho letto era bello.

Dropping che or cui is grammatically incorrect.

Relative Clauses in Italian

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